Describe Commodus Essay

Commodus changes for the worse. He is innately devious and this is not resolved throughout Gladiator. He identifies his main adversary as Maximus, his father’s favourite, but in reality it is his own lack of moral fibre that is his greatest enemy. Maximus’s fallicious death triggers a surge towards a more confident, vehement Commodus, but when Maximus resurfaces there is a resumption of his initial personality. As any emergence any improvement retracts. Maximus’s strengths are Commodus’s weakenesses. Commodus realises this and holds Maximus in contempt. Maximus is everything Commodus aspires to be. Whilst Maximus’s glass is full of orthodox qualities, Commodus’s is almost empty, apart from a few unvirtuous qualities he embodies. It is this emptiness that makes his lack of moral fibre so transparent. Marcus Aurelius sees through the glass and intends to deny Commodus succession by reverting Rome to a Republic. It is here in Commodus’s murder of his father that we see the true extent of his destructive capacity. Maximus has the love of Lucilla, in which Commodus intensley desires. Maximus has the love of Aurelius, the kind of filial love Commodus has always longed for. Maximus has acceptance, the kind Commodus will never achieve because he is an effete. Maximus is loved, respected and is in commands of power, whereas Commodus is not. It is these intangible commodities that motivate Commodus to aspire to metaphorically become Maximus. He acknowledges Maximus’s charisma as an obstacle and sets out to eradicate Maximus accordingly. He is however, unsuccessful in his plight. Commodus indicts others as the cause of his deficency. He fails to recognise that his greatest obstacle is his inner-self. If he had identified the key to success as self-discovery, then he may have acheived his goals. Commodus does not however; and makes no growth positive growth as a character. He remains immoral, fearful, ambitous, greedy, weak, and shrouded in consuming jealousy. These qualities are expressed in his actions and inter-relations with others. Thriving on death and blood, seen in the gladiatorial games, he mistakes violence for power. He is willing to cheat, threaten and murder to obtain it. He instigates himself as the protector of Rome, seen in his  speech to the Senate: â€Å"I am the father of Rome and they are my children.† Attempting to appoint the adulation that comes with a virtuous hero upon himself, an unvirtuous tyrant. The greatest hindrance to Commodus is his all consuming jealousy. It motivates corruption, disallowing Commodus the ability to recognise his own character and to also expand on it. Instead he is entangled in a perpetual reminder of what he is not. This is his pestilence. This jealousy is augmented when Maximus still comands adoration even as a gladiator, when it should be directed towards Commodus; the emperor. It is here that Commodus realizes the trickery he has employed to could his absence of virtues, to gain the love of Rome, has not prospered. The antithesis of virtue is denied admiration. In an attempt to demonstrate power; Commodus challenges Maximus in the battle arena; which signifies his desperation. Maximus is a conquering general and a gladiatorial champion, whereas Commodus is a skillfull swordsman, but he is weak due to his cowardess, and they are unequally matched. This encounter could have been a growth point for Commodus, by way of conquering fear; but he utilizes his insidious qualities and inflicts a mortal wound before the battle begins; to give himself an unfair advantage. Victorious he is not, and death awaits Commodus. Commodus could never find success with the detainment of vices. It would go against the definition of the conquering hero. Commodus as a hero would distort the structure of Gladiator. Commodus is the antagonist; the one in which unvirtuous qualities are shown; to enthrall a sense of moral code in the film and to also display the virtues that compile a hero; Maximus. From the moment Commodus murders his father, Aurelius, he is doomed not to discover success, unless he redeems himself from the wrong-doing he has committed. This redemption does not occur, and illustrates that Commodus is prepared to change for the worse. Commodus carries out more treacherous acts; such as ordering the murder of Maximus and his family. It is here in the killing of innocence that Commodus spirals out of control; and becomes the epitome of immorality. Commodus faces great conflict and motivation to change his ways. He does  change, he becomes worse. It is crucial to his role as the antagonist that he does not learn from his mistakes; otherwise; he would shift to being a protagonist. The tragic hero is one who faces much adversity; but after a journey of discovery finds redemption; and usually death. The negative growth of Commodus is essential to the plot line of Gladiator. Commodus offers a comparison by which Maximus can be measured; and the two share a symbiotic relationship in the way they need each other for the personality of the characters to be fully recognised. Commodus remains trapped in a downward spiral of unvirtue; disallowing himself from experiencing redemption; the redemption that would have made him a tragic hero. This entrapment in vice is however crucial to the narrative of Gladiator.

Venuti’s Theory of Foregnisation Applied to the Phenomenon

Fan-Translation and heterogeneity: Venuti’s theory of foregnisation applied to the phenomenon of fan-translation In this essay I set out to explore the extent to which Lawrence Venuti’s theory of foreignising translation can be usefully applied to explain the practices of fan-translation communities. Fan-translation (hereafter, FT) is a relatively recent phenomenon. O’Hagan , following Flew’s definition of User Generated Content (Flew 2008 in O'Hagan 2009, p. 7) derives the term ‘User Generated Translation’ (hereafter, UGT) in order to describe a â€Å"wide range of translation, carried out based on free use participation in digital media spaces where translation is undertaken by unspecified self-selected individuals† (O'Hagan 2009, p. 97). The user in question is therefore somebody who â€Å"voluntarily act as a ‘remediator’ of linguistically inaccessible products and ‘direct producer’ of translation on the b asis of [his] knowledge of the given language as well as that of a particular media content or genre, spurred by [his] substantial interest in the topic (O'Hagan 2009, p. 7). UGT then could be applied to all those translations carried out by non-professional translators, often for non-financial motives. The term FT in this essay will be used more specifically to describe the practice of those users whose interest is directed towards a particular genre: that of Japanese cultural commodities or, more specifically, Japanese graphic novels (Manga), and animated movies (anime). The question that I would like to address in this essay is whether Lawrence Venuti’s influential theory of translation (Venuti 1995,1998)can help further understanding the phenomenon of FT.The intention of this essay is to claim that some aspects of Venuti’s ‘foregnisation’ theory do indeed serve to characterise fan-translators activities, despite the obvious contextual differences. Thes e differences are easily summarised: FT is not carried out by a single individual or even by a single group of individuals (unlike the cases cited by Venuti, where he either refers to a group of romantic intellectuals in 19th century Germany, or later isolated cases (Venuti 1995, pp. 9-147, 187-272), but a practice carried out on a wider scale, embraced by a greater number of individuals working together as a community of practice, mostly composed of non-professional translators, often very young, not always sharing the same national identity, and mostly lacking the clearly defined cultural agenda that Venuti exposed as a justification for advocating the adoption of foreignising translation practices (Venuti 1995, pp. 6-17). Fandom Fan activities have gathered scholarly attention in recent years due to the opportunities for community building and the ease of sharing content that the recent incarnation of the World Wide Web, or Web 2. 0, offers (see for example (Diaz Cintas and Munoz Sanchez 2006; Lee 2009; Sanchez 2009; Koulikov 2010; Watson 2010; Denison 2011; Lee 2011; Castells and Cardoso 2012).The reason for such scholarly attention is that fan activities, in the form of sharing digital content online, can be said to occupy a ‘liminal space’ (Denison 2011) that is dangerously close to what is often called (but not often clearly defined) ‘piracy’: fan texts that are at the â€Å"liminal edge between fan creativity and piracy. Essentially†¦text augmented by, rather than created by, fans† (Denison 2011, p. 450).For this reason, fan activities built on the relationship that is constituted in the reception of a particular form of literature have been the subject of academic interest: â€Å"Anime texts have become nexus points for discourse around ownership and rights†(Napier 2007 and Thornton 1995 in Denison 2011, p. 450). Within the wider spectrum of fan-related practices, some individuals play the role of ‘pr osumers’: producers and consumers of products, rather than passive spectators (Tapscott and Williams, 2006 in O'Hagan 2009, p. 9). Prosumers not only consume cultural products, but also manifest agency by responding creatively to their favourite text or medium. Some examples of fans creative response analysed by legal scholars could be the theatrical audience participation to showings of The Rocky Horror Show, Town bands performing free concerts, the American musical tradition â€Å"the blues† (Madison 2007, pp. 87-703), amateur fan actors producing new episodes of Star Trek, fan produced Harry Potter Lexicon, fan-made flash based animation derived from music, fan-created version of commercially created virtual mascot Miku Hatsune (Noda 2010, pp. 149-158), which are all forms of participation that sit uneasily with the notion of intellectual property rights. The practices of fans of Japanese comics and animation have been of particular interest to legal theorists (Mehr a 2002; Hatcher 2005; Lessig 2005; Muscar 2006; Noda 2008, 2010).Here it is useful to distinguish between the practices of the dojinshi (hereafter non italicised) community and the practices of the FT community or, to be more specific, communities, since fan translators operating on different media are described with different names: translation of Japanese graphic novels is carried out by a process of Scanlation; subtitling of Japanese animation is carried out by a process called Fansubbing; and finally, the process of modification and translation of video games is called RomHacking. DojinshiWhat are dojinshi, and why are they of interest to legal scholar? Lawrence Lessing, professor of law at Harvard Law School and founding board member of Creative Commons, in his 2004 work Free Culture: how big media uses technology and the law to lock down culture and control creativity, uses dojinshi as an example of derivative works that could not exist in America, since dojinshi are â€Å"A kind of copycat comic†¦ It is not dojinshi if it is just a copy; the artist must make a contribution to the art he copies, by transforming it either subtly or significantly.A dojinshi comic can thus take a mainstream comic and develop it differently—with a different story line. Or the comic can keep the character in character but change its look slightly. There is no formula for what makes the dojinshi sufficiently â€Å"different. † But they must be different if they are to be considered true dojinshi† (Lessig 2005, pp. 25-26) Dojinshi are the Japanese version of what is otherwise called fan-fiction; in other words, unauthorised fan-created version or original works.The term Dojinshi (. Literally ‘dojin’ stands for ‘same person’ and ‘shi’ stands for ‘periodical publication’, which in English could be rendered as Fanzine or Fan-magazine). Dojinshi denoted a type of fan works that are â€Å"self-published, small scale publications written by fans for fans of a particular work (be it a movie, a book, a television series, or a video game) or of a particular romantic pairing possible within that work†(Hemmann 2010).Dojinshi are an important side of the culture that surrounds Japanese graphic novels (manga: literally ‘man’ stands for ‘whimsical’ and ‘ga’ stands for ‘drawings’) in Japan. Manga represent both an industry and a form of expression, so much so that in recent years the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) began to see manga as the new source of Japan’s â€Å"Gross National Cool’ (McGray 2002 in Koulikov 2010, p. 18) and began promoting the country’s content industry abroad (Yoshimoto 2003 in Koulikov 2010, p. 10).The Japanese manga industry and the dojinshi fan-communities reinforce each other in a way that is perhaps surprising to western legal theorists because it raises import ant questions in regards to the efficacy and meaningfulness of copyright practices and of the ideas about originality and authorship that underpins copyright law and associated commercial practices in the west: â€Å"This market exists in parallel to the mainstream commercial manga market. In some ways, it obviously competes with that market, but there is no sustained effort by those who control the commercial manga market to shut the doujinshi market down.It flourishes, despite the competition and despite the law [†¦] in the view of many, it is precisely because it exists that Japanese manga flourish† Lessing 2004, p. 26 The practice of scanlation and fansubbing differ from those of dojinshi artists in some important ways. First of all, they are mostly carried out by fans outside of Japan, and more specifically, while they are carried out in a variety of languages, the majority of the work is carried out by English language fans (Denison 2011, p. 54). Additionally, I wo uld argue that scanlation and fansubbing do not inhabit the same conceptual space of fan-fiction and dojinshi, even if copyright law regards adaptation and translation equally as derivative works (WIPO article 2 (3)). Dojinshi artists working within the idea of ‘complementing the original work’, while unauthorised, are conceptually closer to the wider spectrum of fan activities that are often tolerated in the west (like audience participation to theatrical performances).FT seems to inhabit a narrower conceptual space, closer, and more readily compromised by proximity, to the practices of unauthorised copying that is denounced as piracy, despite the ambiguity of the term piracy itself: â€Å"piracy has never had a stable legal definition and is almost certainly better understood as a product of enforcement debates than as a description of a specific behaviour. The terms blurs, and is often used intentionally to blur, important distinction between types of uncompensated use† (Karaganis et al. 2011, p. ) In order to attempt a conceptualisation of the practices of fan translators, here I would like to adopt Venuti’s framework of domesticating and foreignising translation. My intention in the next part of the essay is to illustrate how FT of Japanese manga and anime could find precedents in the history of translation. In short, I draw from Venuti’s critical genealogy of fluent discourse in the English language translation in order to show that FT should not merely be thought of as free-riding, but that it contains elements of previous use of translation as tool for building a national culture (Venuti 1995, 100).Similarly, FT can be said to represent a vehicle for the construction of sub-cultural capital , the â€Å"knowledge about an area of fandom that allows one to feel comfortable with other like-minded fans, but also to gain status among fellow enthusiasts â€Å" (Napier 2007, p. 150 in Denison 2011, p. 450) Translation Trans lation studies as an academic discipline has a relatively short history, emerging about twenty years ago from the back of comparative literature departments. The independence of translation studies as an academic discipline revolves around its methodology and the questions it aims to answer.Hence, an important question faces every Translation Studies student: should one restrict his enquiry to the analysis of linguistic features of a text, or should attention be paid to the context where the practice of translation takes place: the figure of the translator; his/her motivation; what void in the receiving culture is the translator trying to fill; the interests played behind the importation and exportation of culture; how law, market, social norms and publishing practices all influence the creation of culture of which translation is part of; whether all these form a kind of censorship, and should the translator resist of conform to such censorship, even when is self-censorship? In this essay I would like to explore the possibilities offered by the latter approach, by comparing and contrasting two common elements of contemporary translation: on the one hand, the critical work of Venuti in regards to ‘domestication and foregnisation’ and on the other, the â€Å"phenomenon of user participation in otherwise highly specialised areas of professional translation practice† (O'Hagan 2009, p. 96). To begin with, I would like to introduce the work of Lawrence Venuti (1995, 1998).Venuti describes the state of contemporary translation around the world as characterised by imbalance: the imbalance between the large number of books that are translated from English and the small number of books that are translated into English. This trade imbalance is an effect of the global domination of English which, according to Venuti, leads to a â€Å"complacency in Anglo-American relations with cultural others† apparent in publishing practices in Britain and Ame rica that â€Å"decreases the cultural capital of foreign values in English by limiting the number of foreign text translated and submitting them to domesticating revision† (Venuti 1995, p. 7) According to Venuti, publishing practices in Britain and America reinforce the global domination of English by imposing â€Å"Anglo-American cultural values on a vast foreign readership†, while adopting practices of translation that produce domestic cultures that are â€Å"aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, accustomed to fluent translations that†¦provide the readers with the narcissistic experience of recognising their own culture in a cultural other†(Venuti 1995, p. 15) Emphasis added). Venuti is critical of the canon of fluency that dominated the practice of translation into English. By fluency, Venuti wants to describe a particular way of translating which emphasise the production of texts that conceal their foreignness and instead makes them app ear as the original expression of the foreign author, essentially unmediated by the process of translation. Venuti defines such process of assimilation, in a manner that conceals the text foreign origin, as ‘domestication’.While admittedly all translation is appropriation and assimilation, domestication has the troubling effect, according to Venuti, of reinforcing an ethnocentric attitude towards foreign cultures: the belief that other cultures are in fact no different from one’s own and therefore, that one’s own culture is universal: â€Å"the prevalence of fluent domestication has supported these developments [the monolingual, unreceptive and narcissistic culture above] because of its economic value: enforced by editors, publishers, and reviewers, fluency results in translation that are eminently readable and therefore consumable in the book market, assisting in their commoditisation and insuring the neglect of foreign texts and English-language transla tions discourses that are more resistant to easy readability (Venuti 1995, pp. 15-16).In order to â€Å"resist and change the conditions under which translation is theorised and practiced today, especially in the English-speaking countries† Venuti wants to put forward a â€Å"strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, pitched against the hegemonic English language nations and their unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage theory global others† (Venuti 1995, p. 20). Venuti’s argument then is that literary translators, in an effort to challenge current translation practices, should attempt a ‘foreignising’ approach to translation. What this mean in practice is the production of texts that read as translations and the suggested method to achieve this effect is a theory of translation that emphasise heterogeneity of language.Languages are never monolithically homogeneous entities: different agents will employ language in a different way, according to whom, and in what manner, is an utterance is addressed. Standard literary English is language that exists only in translated foreign literature. Foreignising translation then should attempt to disrupt the homogeneity imposed by textual ‘transparency’ and ‘fluidity’ of the reading experience by inserting traces of heterogeneous language (slang, dialect, archaism, cliques, etc†¦ ) into an otherwise canonical translation. Foregnisation, according to Venuti, â€Å"can alter the way translations are read as well as produced† (Venuti 1995, p. 24).Whether foregnisation can achieve the results that Venuti’s cultural political agenda aim towards is still unclear; Venuti himself reports that critical reviews of his translated works did indeed cause some reactions; some reviewers found this choice of words unconvincing, suspecting that Italian romantics would not have expressed themselves with the obvious colloquiali sm that Venuti strategically employed (Venuti 1998, 19). Such criticism only goes to confirm Venuti’s belief: â€Å"the fact is that Italian romantics would not have used most of the words in my translation because they wrote in Italian, not English† (Venuti 1998, 19-20). The reader had to suspend her cultural and linguistic expectations towards to the foreign text and was forced to take notice of the mediated nature of the translated text, exposing in the criticism the â€Å"dominant narrative form† and â€Å"a prevalent ethnic stereotype† (Venuti 1998, 20). Pym (Venuti’s Visibility Anthony Pym Target 8/2 (1996), pp. 65-177) is unconvinced about the passage from foregnisation to the professed democratic agenda: â€Å"if translators refuse to produce fluent texts, if they make themselves visible through the use of â€Å"resistant† strategies†¦all the rest will surely change too. Such would appear to be the gung-ho reasoning that makes Venuti so visible (Pym 2010, p. 2). The passage from a disrupted reading experience to the wider democratic agenda that Venuti takes for granted is rather unclear. Supposing a reader ‘gets’ what Venuti is trying to do and is taken out of the illusion of being actually reading the words of the original author: the reader becomes aware of the translation being a translation. How can this, beyond achieving a degree of visibility for the translators, achieve further goals?Venuti himself is aware of these difficulties and asks â€Å"what would happen if a translator tried to redirect the process of domestication by choosing foreign texts that deviated from transparent discourse and by translating hem so as to signal their linguistic and cultural differences? Would this effort establish more democratic cultural exchanges? Would it change domestic values? Or would it mean banishment to the fringes of Anglo-American culture? † (Venuti 1995, pp. 40-41). Central to Venutià ¢â‚¬â„¢s concerns, however, there is an aspect of translation that Pym recognizes as key to contemporary translation practices: the question of copyrights. Copyrights Venuti dedicated a chapter of his 1995’s work to the Italian writer Iginio Ugo Tarchetti (1839-1869) (Venuti 1995, 148-186). In 1865, Tarchetti plagiarised Shelley’s tale â€Å"the mortal immortal† by translating it into Italian without acknowledging the English author.While Venuti recognises that â€Å"the shrewdness and sheer audacity of Tarchetti’s plagiarism may make it attractive to dissidents in Anglo-American literary culture†, he also recognises the practical limits of such practice: â€Å"Tarchetti’s translation practices cannot be imitated today without significant revision. Plagiarism, for example, is largely excluded by copyright laws that bind translators as well as authors†¦ to publish an unauthorized translation of a copyrighted foreign text is to invite le gal proceedings whose cost will far exceed the translator’s income from even a bestselling translation† (Venuti 1995, 185). Venuti advice to contemporary English-language translator is not break the law, but rather, to choose carefully what to translate: The choice of a foreign text for translation can be just as foreignising in its impact on the target-language culture as the invention of a discursive strategy.At a time when deviations from fluency may limit the circulation of a translation or even prevent it from getting published in the first place, Tarchetti points to the strategic value of discriminating carefully among foreign texts and literatures when a translation project is developed† (Venuti 1995, 185-186). Venuti calls attention to the manner in which contracts and copyright laws regulate the production of translated literature. Translation, according to the Berne international copyright convention is defined as ‘derivative’ work (WIPO art icle 2 (3)). Therefore, translation is morally and legally bound to the will of the original author (WIPO article 8).Copyright law varies according to nations, the US and UK lacking the concept of ‘Author’s rights’ that is present in most continental Europe’s laws, while the US and UK have clearly defined ‘fair use’ clause that are not present in continental Europe. Pym agrees that copyright law on translation need revision: â€Å"The idea of limiting the author’s translation rights to a short period of perhaps five years sounds like an excellent practical way of stimulating translationsâ€Å" but at the same time, he is sceptical of drastic measures: â€Å"But is our complaint really that â€Å"the translator’s authorship is never given full legal recognition†? (Venuti 1995, p. 9) Do we have to do away with the distinction between author and translator, or even with copyright altogether? † (Pym 2010, p. 4).Intern ational Copyright law reinforces the idea that translation is not ‘transformative’ work, which is defined more narrowly in terms of criticism or parody. Translation as derivative work falls within the category of ‘copy’ that is regulated by ‘copy-rights’. While much translation theory in the past 20 years since the emergence of translation studies as an academic discipline has struggled to establish translation as a serious intellectual endeavour worthy of scholarly attention, the commercial reality that regulates the production of translation tells a strikingly different tale: literary translation, as a form of cultural production, is regulated by the practices of the publishing industry.The translation of foreign literature is subject to norms, laws and market restrictions, as well as architectural conditions. Lessing model of restriction that applies to all cultural commodities (i. e. : culture that is bought and sold, of which translated li terature is part of (Lessing 2005, 133). Lessing sees cultural commodities as subjected to restrictions that until the 20th century were fairly balanced: publishers’ rights were regulated by copyrights law, so as to limit their monopoly over the production and distribution of culture. This guaranteed the exclusive ability to reproduce and translate literary works on behalf of the author for a limited time.The concept of a ‘limited monopoly’ was balanced by the fact that once such monopoly expired, artistic works would fall into the public domain and so become available for the general public to read, print, distribute and translate without the need to acquire the copyright holder permission. Unlike the law in continental Europe, according to common law practices in the US and UK, the copyright holder could control the distribution and translation of a work regardless of the author’s wishes. In continental Europe, by contrast, the concept of ‘authorâ €™s rights’ recognise the moral right to claim authorship of a work and to retain the ability of stop distribution of his work.One might wonder if, before the introduction of copyright laws, translators indulged indiscriminately in the plagiarism of foreign works as in the example of Tarchetti. The truth is that until 1790, in the United States the right granted by a copyright only gave the author the exclusive right to ‘publish’ a particular book and did not extend to derivative works: â€Å"it would not interfere with the right of someone other than the author to translate a copyrighted book, or to adapt the story to a different form (such as a drama based on a published book)† (Lessing 2005, 136) It seems almost impossible in the contemporary world to imagine a time where the right of translators matched those of the foreign author.It seems natural to imagine the chaos that lack of copyrights would cause: an infinite number of translators plagiarisi ng the work of foreign authors and passing them as their own creations. It is this anxiety in regards to plagiarism, of a lack of clearly established standards of authorship that drives suspicion about translation. Authorship as creative genius is a value that is attached to a person or a work of art. This value can be seen reflected in the idea of ‘intellectual property’ which depicts copyrights rights as a natural state of affairs, that is, a natural property right. However, according to William Patry, copyrights are created solely the government and therefore should not be understood as an end in itself, but instead an end to a social objective: furthering learning (Patry moral panic, 103).Patry argues that the essence of property is not absolute dominion over things, but rather, it is determined by a system of social relationships: â€Å"property is quintessentially and absolutely a social institution. Every concept of property reflects†¦those choices that we – as a society- have made† LAURA UNDERKUFFERLER, 203, 54 IN PATRY 103 (Patry 103). That means that copyrights, and the idea of authorship that underpins copyrights, are determined by social practices and therefore reflected in social norms, and finally and more concretely, in the legislation that regulate copyrights. Before copyright renewal in the United States became automatic in 1992, only a small percentage of authors claimed them, and even smaller percentage applied for renewal (Patry, 67-68).Paradoxically, copyright became valuable to corporations only when they were given automatically without authors having to do anything to claim it: â€Å"Survey of renewal rates in the United Stes from 1910 to 2001 found a range between 3 percent in 1910 to 22 percent in 1991†¦of all the books published the united states in 1930, and therefore under copyright until 2025, only 174, or 1. 7 percent, are still in print† (Patry 68). The boundary that separates a legiti mate creative response to a work of art and an illegitimate one is made tangible in law by the prohibition to copy, adapt or translate without the consent of the foreign author. Such law, which seems almost common sense in contemporary society, has a relatively short history. Changing attitudes towards intellectual property rights reflect contemporary anxiety in regards to originality and authorship, which contributes to the marginality of translation.According to Venuti â€Å"whereas authorship is generally defined as originality, self-expression in a unique text, translation is derivative, neither self-expression nor unique: it imitates another text given the reigning concept of authorship, translation provokes the fear of inauthenticity, distortion, contamination† (Venuti 1998, 31). This anxiety affects the most those concerned about plagiarism, especially academic institutions and academic publishing: â€Å"translation is rarely considered a form of literary scholarship, it does not currently constitute a qualification for an academic appointment in a particular field or area of literary study, and, compared to original compositions translated texts are infrequently made the object of literary research† (Venuti 1998, 32). Here Venuti is critical of the academic deference towards the ‘original’ at the expenses of translation.The concept of authorship here joins that of fluent translation in an attempt to present the foreign author as the one who is ‘speaking’ through the medium of the text, in order to â€Å"ascertain the authorial intention that constitutes originality† (Venuti 1998, 31). The Translator hence become an uncomfortable middle man that must hide, as much as possible, both the facts that the text in question is a not the original, and that the foreign author did not employ the language of the translation. The middle man goes unnoticed, not by mere oversight, but quite deliberately. Copyright law, a lso reflected in translation contracts, perpetuate this neglect. Copyright, as we have seen, by defining translation as derivative work, justify contracts that employ translators as work-for-hire, so that the product of their work belongs to the publishing company who do not have to acknowledge the translator.Practical example of this is the lack of the translator’s name on the cover of a volume or in library catalogue indexes, or the disparity between the royalties that the translator receives in comparison to those of the foreign author. The disparity between authorship and translation affects the whole production of commercially translated literature. What i would like to explore next is the side of contemporary translation that is not affected by commercial consideration or in need of academic recognition. Here the terminology varies from non-commercial translation to amateur translation or fan-translation, but from the point of view of copyright holders it represents a m ore straightforward phenomenon: theft of intellectual property, or in other words, piracy. PiracyAs Castells and Cardoso points out, we usually look at media consumption, of which translated literature is an example of, starting from a media industry definition (Castells and Cardoso 2012). In other words, the content that is normally available to us to read, watch or listen to is usually made available through the payment of a fee or because it is supported by advertising. The commercial relationship that binds together media companies and individual is regulated by a set of rules that are legally formalised into rights and obligations (Castells and Cardoso 2012). Piracy, by infringing these rights and obligations, can be a usefully employed to illustrate some of the issues that characterise the status of translation in the current world, how translation is produced and distributed.In short, the argument I would like to put forward is such: piracy is used to describe everything that is not in the public domain but that can be obtained from non-authorised sources, shared with others, whether for free or not. This means that piracy could be whatever is made available to share that contain even parts, or traces, or adaptations, of existing copyrighted works. A pirate here is defined as anybody who makes use of existing copyrighted material in order to express something of his own (with the exception of criticism or parody, which are allowed by law) (WIPO? ). On one side of the debate there are internet users and in particular peer-to-peer (P2P) networks function as efficient tools of distribution of digital content. On the other, litigious media corporations fighting a moral crusade against intellectual theft.The sides of this war, however, assume different connotations depending on who is doing the description: for the copyright holding corporations, authors are being robbed of the fruits of their work; here the fight is described as one between intellectual cop yright owners and thieves. On the other side, is it estimated that more than 40 million American citizens have used the internet to download content; hence a substantial part of US citizens is being criminalised. Lessing asks: â€Å"Is there another way to assure that artists get paid without transforming forty-three million Americans into felons? Does it make sense if there are other ways to assure that artists get paid without transforming America into a nation of felons? † (Lessing 2005, 202).The model of distribution of culture that once revolved around a few selected corporations is now being challenged by technological innovations that were unimaginable a generation ago. Digital content can be shared across the world free of physical constrains (such as books, shops, printing press, etc. ) but also free from the editors, publishers, and reviewers which Venuti sees as the source of neglect of foreign texts and translation practices that emphasise heterogeneity of discour se. The sharing possibilities offered by the net act as a source of heterogeneity: they provide easily accessible, free to share, translated foreign literature that constitutes an alternative to what is available commercially.Venuti limited his theory of translation within the boundaries of commercial translation, albeit as a form of dissidence in respect to the practices enforced by institutional channels. What is of interested here from the point of view of translation are the possibilities offered by working outside the commercial paradigm, the translation practices of those communities that focus on literature, like dojinshi, that are not accessible to the translators working within the legitimate sphere, whether due to social norms, ideology, poetics, of purely economic reasons. The net provides a venue (cultural space? Deleuze and Guattari) for that sub-cultures that are neglected by commercial organizations (and that could not be catered for legally by other institutions). Re ferencesCastells, M. and Cardoso, G. 2012. Piracy Cultures Editorial Introduction. International Journal of Communication [Online] 6. Available at: http://ijoc. org/ojs/index. php/ijoc/article/view/1610/732 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Denison, R. 2011. Anime fandom and the liminal spaces between fan creativity and piracy. International Journal of Cultural Studies [Online] 14(5). Available at: http://ics. sagepub. com/content/14/5/449. full. pdf+html [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Diaz Cintas, J. and Munoz Sanchez, P. 2006. Fansubs: audiovisual translation in an amateur environment. The Journal of Specialised Translation [Online] 6. Available at: http://www. jostrans. rg/issue06/art_diaz_munoz. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Hatcher, J. 2005. Of otaku and fansubs: a critical look at anime online in light of current issues in copyright law. [Online]. Available at: http://www. law. ed. ac. uk/ahrc/SCRIPT-ed/vol2-4/hatcher. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Hemmann, K. 2010. Dojinshi [Online]. Avai lable at: http://japaneseliterature. wordpress. com/2010/02/20/dojinshi-part-one/ [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Karaganis, J. et al. 2011. Media piracy in emerging economies. [Online]. Available at: http://bibliotecadigital. fgv. br/dspace/bitstream/handle/10438/8526/MPEE-PDF-Full%20Book. pdf. txt? sequ.. [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Koulikov, M. 2010.Fighting the fan sub war: Conflicts between media rights holders and unauthorized creator/distributor networks. Transformative Works and Cultures [Online] 5(0). Available at: http://journal. transformativeworks. org/index. php/twc/article/view/115/171. Lee, H. K. 2009. Between fan culture and copyright infringement: manga scanlation. Media, culture, and society [Online] 31(6). Available at: http://www. yorku. ca/rcoombe/courses/Owning%20Culture/class03_Lee. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Lee, H. K. 2011. Participatory media fandom: A case study of anime fansubbing. Media, Culture ; Society [Online] 33(8). Available at: http://www. kcl. ac. uk/ artshums/depts/cmci/people/papers/lee/participatory. df [Accessed: 13 June 2013]. Lessig, L. 2005. Free culture: The nature and future of creativity. Penguin Group USA. Madison, M. J. 2007. Intellectual property and Americana, or why IP gets the blues. Fordham Intell. Prop. Media ; Ent. LJ [Online] 18. Available at: http://ir. lawnet. fordham. edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi? article=1407;context=iplj [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Mehra, S. 2002. Copyright and comics in Japan: Does law explain why all the cartoons my kid watches are Japanese imports. Rutgers L. Rev. [Online] 55. Available at: http://corneredangel. com/amwess/papers/copyright_comics_japan. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Muscar, J. E. 2006.Winner Is Who-Fair Use and the Online Distribution of Manga and Video Game Fan Translations. Vand. J. Ent. ; Tech. L. [Online] 9. Available at: http://www-prod. law. vanderbilt. edu/publications/journal-entertainment-technology-law/archive/download. aspx? id=1694 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Noda, N. T. 2008. When Holding On Means Letting Go: Why Fair Use Should Extend to Fan-Based Activities. University of Denver Sports and Entertainment Law Journal [Online] 5. Available at: http://law. du. edu/documents/sports-and-entertainment-law-journal/issues/05/05-noda. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Noda, N. T. 2010. Copyrights retold: How interpretive rights foster creativity and justify fan-based activities.Seton Hall Journal of Sports and Entertainment Law [Online] 20(1). Available at: http://law. shu. edu/Students/academics/journals/sports-entertainment/Issues/upload/Vol20_Noda_Formatted. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. O'Hagan, M. 2009. Evolution of user-generated translation: fansubs, translation hacking and crowdsourcing. Journal of Internationalisation and Localisation [Online] 1(1). Available at: http://pablomunoz. com/wp-content/JIAL_2009_1_2009_APA. pdf#page=102 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Sanchez, P. M. 2009. Video Game Localisation for Fans by Fans: The Case of Romhacking. Th e Journal of Internationalisation and Localisation Volume I [Online].Available at: http://pablomunoz. com/wp-content/JIAL_2009_1_2009_APA. pdf#page=176 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Venuti, L. 1995. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. London ; New York: Routledge. Watson, J. 2010. Fandom squared: Web 2. 0 and fannish production. Transformative Works and Cultures [Online] 5. Available at: http://journal. transformativeworks. org/index. php/twc/article/viewArticle/218/183 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. WIPO. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works [Online]. World Intellectual Property Organisation. Available at: http://www. wipo. int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001. html [Accessed: 13 June 2012].

Adaptations for High Altitude Birds

Adaptations for High Altitude Birds Birds have developed the ability to maintain flight at various altitudes. The focus of this essay was placed specifically on flight at high altitudes. The characteristics of birds which maintain flight at high altitudes were found to be enhanced gaseous exchange efficiency, higher O2 affinity haemoglobin, and increase O2 diffusion to muscle fibers as a result of an increase in capillary-fiber ratio in a high-altitude hypoxic environment. It has also been seen that birds found at high altitudes have larger wingspans thereby reducing the energetic costs of flight in low-density air. Key words: Altitude, hemoglobin, hypoxic, wingspan Introduction Though not all birds are capable of flight, most birds are commonly recognized by flight. Birds are found all over the surface of the Earth (Bicudo et al, 2010) in a variety of environments which they are adapted to. Here we will explore the physiology of high altitude bird flight. The main focus will be placed on migrating birds due to the l arge amount of research performed on the species and migrating birds are found at a huge range of altitudes. As stated by Bicudo et al (2010), â€Å"High altitude experienced by birds that reside or breed in high mountains or by migrating birds that must cross such ranges† are considered to be high elevation specialist’s. Factors associated with high altitude causes this environment to be especially challenging for avian flight, these factors includes â€Å"high ambient wind speeds, low air temperatures, low oxygen availability and low air density† (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006). These factors may be detrimental in a birds’ flight performance specifically on bird biomechanics (lift and drag) of avian flight (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006). A consequence of the factors may result in energetics cost being higher in the severely hypoxic and cold environment (Butler and Bishop, 2000). The objective of this essay is to discuss the many features of birds which appea r to be important for high altitude flight (Scott, 2011). Environmental factors at high altitude As stated by Altshuler and Dudley (2006), a gradient in altitude indicates a change in numerous environmental parameters. As altitudes increase, temperature and humidity decrease, however, day length or solar angle of incidence remains the same (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006). An altitude increase, there is a systematic decrease O2 partial pressure (Bicudo et al., 2010). This is one of the most importance changes taking place with regards to respiratory and metabolism due to the reduced availability of oxygen. As partial pressure reduces, there is an inversely increase in the gaseous diffusion coefficient. Furthermore, wind speed increases with altitude, studies propose that birds can minimize their energy costs of flights through the use of wind assistance (Bicudo et al., 2010). As altitude increases, there is also a noticeable decrease with in water content. This decrease in water content in cool air at high elevations may result in desiccation (Bicudo et al., 2010). Thus high oxygen demands for flight are at odds with a decreased O2 availability, air density and lift (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006). Physiology of flight at high altitude Muscles Flight requires a high endurance capacity, for this reason, it relies on oxidative metabolism for energy (Bicudo et al. 2010). The pectoralis muscles of a bird is considered the â€Å"flight motor† of a bird and constitute up to 35% of the total body mass (Bicudo et al. 2010). Long distance migrants â€Å"flight motor† muscles possess rapidly oxidative glycolytic muscle fibers and short distance migrants â€Å"flight motor† muscles possess muscle fibers with a much lower oxidative capacity as well as fast-acting glycolytic fibers (Bicudo et al. 2010). It should be noted that muscle capillary-per-fiber number is higher in highly aerobic pectoral muscles and less aerobic leg muscles for high altitude birds (B icudo et al. 2010).

Critically evaluate the above statement, referring to the case law of Essay

Critically evaluate the above statement, referring to the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union, that of the national courts in the UK, and two other Member States - Essay Example The central issue circles around the interpersonal relationship between the European Court of Justice and the national courts related to supremacy claim over the national law that is embedded in the ECJ’s jurisdiction. At the base level, clashes between the community laws along with the national law are readily apparent. It has also been observed that according to the ECJ, it has decided that the law associated with the European Community (EC) must be supreme related to any kind of conflict that might arise in the decisions of the community and the national courts. On the basis of the new regulations, it has been observed that the principle of ECJ’s supremacy over the rulings of the national courts has been well recognised in the case of Costa v. ENEL among others2. This study intends to discuss the relevant gaps between the decisions of the European Court of Justice and the national courts. The presented views include the internal authority of the EU law that essential ly places the national constitutions and the EU legal order on a collision course. ECJ had been established in the year 1952 with a view to mitigate the three roles that are associated with the member states that frame the part of the European Community (EC). One of the three major roles includes laying a constant check upon the EC’s legislative and the executive bodies. Another key role depicts clarifying along with interpreting the indefinite EC’s law. The last vital role entails the implementation of non-compliance of the EC jurisdiction by the member States3. The development of the jurisdiction under the ‘European Legal System’ has enabled to enlighten certain flaws associated with the system. It has been observed that the member States have apparently supported the ‘European Legal System’. Member States have readily passed on the authority to the ECJ for carrying out the judicial

HOW DOES INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS SUCH AS WORLD TRADE Research Paper

HOW DOES INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS SUCH AS WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO), EUROPEAN UNION (EU) AND NORTH AMERICA - Research Paper Example Free trade has highly devastated American industries and American jobs at large. The Senator Barrack Obama in 2007 indicated his believe in free trade (Raskin, et al. 42). He however acknowledged that the burdens that came with this trade highly outweighed the benefits especially for millions of Americans. The trade has contributed to adverse working conditions. Underdeveloped countries will want to cut down on costs in a bid to benefit from price advantages but on the other hand, many employees in the respective countries end up facing low pay, bad working conditions and forced labor including abusive child labor. As underdeveloped countries attempt to cut costs to gain a price advantage, many workers in these countries face low pay, substandard working conditions and even forced labor and abusive child labor. Yet the WTO states that it does not consider a manufacturer’s treatment of workers reason for countries to bar importation of that manufacturer's products. The WTO howe ver notes that developing countries insist any attempt to include working conditions in trade agreements is meant to end their cost advantage in the world market. This trade often contributes to environmental damage. An increase of corporate farms in developing countries tends to increase pesticide and energy use, and in turn host countries ignore costly environmental standards. The Global Development and Environmental Institute, however, find the environmental impact mixed. The WTO is criticized for not allowing barriers to imports based on inadequate environmental standards in countries where goods are produced (Richardson 76-9). Yet the WTO points to its ruling in the 1990s allowing a U.S. ban on shrimp imports because fishing methods threatened endangered sea turtles outside U.S. borders. The extent to which environmental standards should be considered in free trade is an ongoing debate within the WTO. The trade agreements tend to draw protests from the U.S. public as a result o f feared job loss to foreign countries with cheaper labor. Yet proponents of free trade say new agreements help to improve the economy on either side. There is no clear picture of whether the trade significantly affects U.S. employment levels, given all the economic forces that affect job rates. Proponents of free trade contend that even if the economies of developing nations improve under free trade, those economies are still too small to have any real effect on the U.S. economy and job market (Goldstein 21). Unions have strongly criticized the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the United States, Mexico and Canada as critically harmful to workers and the U.S. economy. The AFL-CIO argues NAFTA has harmed consumers and workers thereby contributing to a loss of jobs and drop in income while strengthening the clout of multinational corporations. The unions contend that the increased capital mobility facilitated by free trade has hurt the environment and weakened gover nment regulations. The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), reports that many economists agree NAFTA has caused some overall improvement in U.S. jobs but with harmful side effects. Free trade can cause turbulence in sectors of a domestic economy, such as long-established

Bacterial Meningitis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bacterial Meningitis - Research Paper Example d deep kissing, suffer from chronic ear and nose infection, and who have contracted pneumococcal pneumonia are at a higher risk of developing this disease. This ailment is characterized by high fever, headaches, increasing drowsiness, and irritability. Immediate medical attention has to be obtained, upon suspecting the presence of this disease. In general, it is advisable to undergo hospitalization. The recommended therapy is to administer antibiotics. Despite the reported 10% fatality rate of this disease, early diagnosis and treatment have ensured recovery in the majority of the patients. The most common cause of meningitis is bacterial or viral infection that has commenced in some other region of the body. Some examples are, the ears, sinuses, or upper respiratory tract. On occasion, meningitis results from autoimmune disorders, fungal infections, and medications. Bacterial meningitis proves to be contagious with regard to people who are in close physical contact (Johnson, 2013). The inflammation of the meninges or the membranes that enclose the spinal cord and the brain, constitutes bacterial meningitis. The cause of the inflammation is bacterial infection that can prove to be fatal. These bacteria are present in the mouth, nose, throat, and spread from an infected individual to another via coughing, osculation, or the sharing of food or beverages. This infection can also spread from an infection of the brain, ear, nose, sinus, or throat. Such infection can also be spread by a head injury or head surgery (Drugs.com, 2013). Among children and young adults, meningococcus or Neisseria meningitides, and Streptococcus pneumonia occur frequently. These are the principal causes of meningitis in the US, and there are vaccines available for Neisseria meningitides, and Streptococcus pneumonia. These vaccines have been recommended for all the people who are special risk. The bacteria tend to spread from individual to individual via coughing and sneezing (Johnson,

Fungi and Medicine Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fungi and Medicine - Case Study Example Fungi play an important role in the ecology as their presence determines the types of plants and hence the types of animals that can live in a biological community. Fungi do not contain chlorophyll hence they cannot photosynthesize and so they are consumers in the food chain. Many fungi follow saprophytic nutrition meaning that they secrete extracellular enzymes to carry out digestion while other fungi like tinea that causes ‘Athlete’s foot’ are parasitic in nature. Fungi exist as mycelium which is actually a network of tiny thread-like filaments known as hyphae. The mushroom is the fruiting body or the reproductive part of the fungi. Sexual and asexual reproduction, both are found equally in the Kingdom fungi. In addition to its vital importance in ecology, it plays an essential role in the lives of humans. Fungi find applications in our daily lives, for example in the fermentation of beer and in the making of pizza dough. Fungi are also key decomposers in the fo od chain and are therefore essential for the biodegradation of dead animals and plants, returning nutrients back to the soil. However the most important role of fungi is in its use in medicine. Huge amount of antibiotics, derived from fungi are produced annually (Kendrick). Use of Fungi in Medicine: Penicillin was one of the first antibiotics to be developed from fungi. It was extracted by Alexander Fleming from the secretions of a fungus, ‘Penicillium’. Penicillin was considered a miracle drug after its discovery as it provided cure to a wide range of previously incurable diseases. It is still widely used in the production of a variety of effective antibiotics and has saved millions of lived since its discovery. Penicillin works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to develop new cell walls. Bacteria reproduce by cell division and since the creation of cell wall is inhibited, cell division does not take place and new daughter cells cannot be produced. This great ly reduces the reproduction potential of the bacteria and the bacteria only increases in length without dividing which weakens the protective cell wall and gradually the bacterial population dies. Nowadays research is being done in genetic modification of some types of fungi to prevent the spread of vector-transmitted diseases such as malaria. Experiments have been done by using transgenic fungus and using it to infect mosquitoes that carry the malaria parasite. The fungi have their genes modified by having the gene of the human malarial antibody injected into them. The results have showed that these fungi are extremely effective in eradicating the parasite and can lower incidents of malarial infection. Further research is being done on this so that possible resistance among the mosquitoes does not occur and optimization against the malarial pathogen is achieved (Fungi Developed to Fight Malaria in Mosquitoes). Genetic modification of fungi is also taking place to produce naturally occurring drugs. Taxol is a naturally occurring drug which is derived from the yew tree however the tree needs to be cut down for the drug extraction. In addition the yield of the Drug is very low. To solve this problem, the genes of fungi are now being modified so that they can yield the naturally occurring drugs like Taxol at a faster rate (Law). Organ transplants in recent past were very difficult to perform and used to pose a major threat of death to the patient if the immune system

Classical Films vs. Art Films Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Classical Films vs. Art Films - Essay Example Two significant cinematographic modes defined by the methods of studio production and compliance with a set of related standards are classical Hollywood cinema and art film. Form the body of related research literature, it becomes clear that classical Hollywood cinema mode is that resting upon the set of traditions and stylistic devices descending for the Classical era of cinematography. Classical mode is distinguished by restricted ambiguity and uncertainty, resolution of the crises and moral dilemmas by the end of the narrative, visibility of causal relationships. This approach is marked by the technical means’ subordination to presentation of events and by decreased value of the motion picture as an artefact: it is the content of the narrative that draws primary attention, with the plot-related questions emerging in the viewers’ minds. Development of the narrative is usually logical, clear and occurs in the chronological order, while the scenes are glued together sea mlessly creating a smooth flow supported by appropriate music scores. The described characteristics of the classical cinema mode are derived from the function cinema is expected to perform within this mode: classical Hollywood cinematographic products are intended to entertain the audience, with the key stress being placed on action. In order to insure completion of this task, production process uses technical aspects such as lighting, mise-en-scene, music score and cinematographic properties making the comprehension of the narration easier.

W4 Comment on Peer Responses DQ1 AE and DQ2 CC Assignment

W4 Comment on Peer Responses DQ1 AE and DQ2 CC - Assignment Example People work in order to survive and be able to feed their families. The United States has a high standard of living evidenced by its gross domestic product per capita of $46,300 (CultureGrams, 2011). It is always tough when people do not earn enough money to cover their living expenses. Often when people are not able to break even in terms of income and expenses they borrow money from credit cards or loans to survive. The problem with such a strategy is that it is a short term solution. Eventually the person will run out of credit. A lot hard working Americans have gone bankrupt since the recession began in 2008. In 2010 there were over 1.5 million Americans that file bankruptcies (Uscourt, 2010). You mentioned in your response that poor people often rely on governmental assistance. The problem with programs such as welfare is not the economic incentive that it offers since a lot of people need the money to eat. To me the problem lies in that some people get comfortable and they never want to leave welfare. Uscourts.gov (2011). 2010 Report of Statistics Required by the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005. Retrieved October 28, 2011 from

An Evaluation of the Economy of the United Kingdom Based On the Dissertation

An Evaluation of the Economy of the United Kingdom Based On the Consequences ofthe Credit Crunch - Dissertation Example In the summer of 2011, the financial crisis that shook the global economy knocked the doors by jolting the economy of the United States and other European Nations (Oxlade (2011). The global markets were miffed by the possibility of another financial setback and probably another recession to deal with (Franklin, Douglas, 2007). The research highlights the current credit crunch scenario prevailing in the United Kingdom through a thorough analysis of past and present literature along with understanding and analysing the key reasons behind the rise of recession in different parts of the world (Lowery (2011). The information collected from different sources and resources helped in developing aims and objectives of the research along with understanding the present financial crisis rising from the ashes of the past crisis that once thwarted the financial progress and stablisation in different parts of the world. The research methodology helped in analysing the primary and secondary data in an analytical manner through logical research methods, approaches and ideologies. Findings of the research were compared with the analysis of literature in order to identify a common trend or relationship in a logical manner. Primary reasons behind the credit crunch have been highlighted well to support the proposed aims and objectives of the research. The research also discusses ethical issues and logical considerations that helped in presenting the research in an ethical and honest manner. The conclusion part is based on the overall analysis of the data and information collected from different sources along with relating with the literature in a significant manner TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 1.Introduction 1.1 Background of the Topic 6 1.2 Research Aim 7 1.3... The paper tells that the financial crisis of the 2007 strongly affected the economics of the global world in a negative manner. The financial crisis of the 2007; often considered as one of the worst credit crunches after the Great Depression of the 1930s changed the financial structure and image of the global economy. It resulted in the collapse of few of the financial institutions across the globe with the likes of Lehman Brothers and Northern Rock falling prey to the financial turmoil. The bailout of banks by the governments across the globe did not revamp the financial health of the financial institutions and the whole world suffered with the loss of money, investments and jobs. The financial crisis was triggered by the liquidity crunch faced by the banks of the United States because of the housing bubble that raised issues and questions over the sub-prime crisis. Investors across the world were skeptical in terms of investing their money and banks were facing credit crunch that b locked the equilibrium between the inflow and outflow of funds driven by the demand and supply of funds. A number of measures including governments’ initiatives to bail out financial institutions and improvement in the liquidity position of banks played an important role in stablising the credit crunch but the impact and influence was too hard that up to some extent changed the financial position of the global economy.

Collision Course †NEOs Essay Example for Free

Collision Course – NEOs Essay When looking at the Earth in the Solar System, there are many fascinating objects, and also many dangerous ones. NEOs, or Near Earth Objects are constantly being studied to determine the actual possibility of collision with the Earth. Most NEOs consist of meteors, meteorites, comets and asteroids. Though most of the objects are too small to cause any sort of substantial damage, there are a few that are capable of causing the next major extinction. In order for an object to be considered a NEO, it must be within 1. 3 AUs (or astronomical units) from the Sun. 1.3 AU is the same as about 93 million miles. The NEOs are objects that have been bumped by the gravity of other planets which let them get close to the Earths orbit.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the major groups of NEOs are meteoroids. The term meteor is actually used to describe the streak of visible light after its trip through the Earths orbit. One of the most famous craters, which   is like a giant scar caused by a NEO hitting the Earth, is in Arizona. Meteor Crater, or Barringer Meteorite Crater as it is also known as, is a jarring reminder of what kind of damage a NEO can do upon impact. Most meteors are small enough that once they are pulled in by the Earths orbit and hit the atmosphere, they burn up and disintegrate before they ever get the chance to actually hit the Earths surface.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another group of NEOs are asteroids. One of the largest asteroids that astronomers keep their eyes on is Apophis. This giant is due to hit the Earth in 2036. The size of Apophis is estimated to be a bit larger then the Rose Bowl, and if it were to hit the Earth would cause global damage. If it hits the ocean, the damage occurring from the huge tsunamis by themselves would be catastrophic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another class of objects that are visible to the naked eye are comets. When speaking of them as NEOs, then they are considered to be old comet nuclei whose perihelia are less then 1.3 AU from the Sun. One comet in particular that has been known through history is Halleys Comet. Also, the trail of cosmic dust, or tail of the comet can also be passed through by the Earth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, NASA is taking steps to try and diminish the risk of being hit by a NEO by continually watching and cataloging the orbits and behaviors of NEOs. What remedies that have been looked at so far to try and deal with the risk of being hit is to explode nuclear weapons near the object to try and change its course. Other considerations that have been looked at is sending high-speed ballistic missiles towards the object to make an impact, or to send a hovering spacecraft to pull the object into a different orbit, thereby allowing it to miss the Earth altogether. The future for watching NEOs is strongly backed now more then ever before. Washington has allowed a $4 million dollar budget for listing potential and real threats to the Earth, and sent a new report to congress in March 2007. Considering the probability that the Earth will be hit again, as it has been hit in the past requires that the scientific community take heed of the risk, and not only be able to prepare the world for such a catastrophe, but be able to prevent it as well. References http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/neo/index.cfm http://www.nasa.gov/centers/hq/home/index.html http://newton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/neodys/neoibo?info:0;faq#nea

Tom Burtonwood and Holly Holmes Essay Example for Free

Tom Burtonwood and Holly Holmes Essay The painting Vertical Envelopment by Tom Burtonwood and Holly Holmes is obviously a modern painting that deals with the issues of technology, power, and war. These two Chicago based artist have displayed the power of the military through this painting. The painting symbolizes the stark reality that war is not a game, but a reality. The subject of the painting is that of a large black military helicopter that is centered in the painting. The bird’s eye view of the ground and the looming chopper, symbolizes the all knowing omnipresence of the military and through modern technology. The colors used to portray the ground are washed out yellow and gray. These colors represent the desert warfare or the Iraq War that the artists oppose. There is a black river that cuts through the painting like a half moon that is representative of lack of life. The medium used in Vertical Envelopment is aluminum and acrylic. Burtonwood and Holmes used the aluminum to give the feel of cold harsh metal of the weaponry. They chose acrylic paint because of its adherence to any type of surface. Any other paint would not have endured on the aluminum. The vividness of color would have been another reason that acrylics would have been chosen. The crisp black of the helicopter is essential to the painting. The style of Vertical Envelopment is more like that of social realism. It seems that this style would fit the painting because it is political in tone. One can tell by the dominance of the helicopter to the point that it is menacing and frightening, shows that the artists are against the war. They are also making the statement that machines are fighting the war and that is contrary to the idea that it is not the machines that are destroyed by war, but the people and the earth that are destraoyed. The lines used in Vertical Envelopment are mostly straight except for the river. The straight lines of the objects on the ground from a view much higher, gives a lifelessness of those objects. It looks as if there is order to what is going on at ground level, when nothing could be farther from the truth during war. The curved yet somewhat vertical lines of the river, give feeling of straying to those things that are straight. Burtonwood and Holmes also added vertical lines of gray and black to represent either gun fire or rain. This offsets that horizontal shape of the helicopter. The value of the painting is not one of luminosity. It is dull and drab, but that is for a reason. The artists do not want to add a glossed overview of war. The predominant color used in the painting is black. One reason it was chosen was that the main symbolic meaning of black is death which is a reality of war. The drab yellow and gray represents the lifeless earth after the ravages of war. The texture of Vertical Envelopment is smooth which is oppositional to the message that it presents on the negative aspects of war. Vertical Envelopment by Tom Burtonwood and Holly Holmes is one that speaks volumes to me. I feel that war is devastating to everyone involved and this particular is shows the harshness. There is a huge emphasis on the subject, the helicopter, and that says to me that war is like the metal and machinery of the helicopter. It is cold and unfeeling, yet it is powerful and destructive. It is difficult to run from it because of the vantage point that it has. The way that Burtonwood and Holmes emphasize the metal through their painting and the aluminum, strikes me because it makes their message so obvious yet innovative. This work of art speaks volumes to the viewer about the political situation of the world. ? Works Cited Burtonwood, Tom and Holmes, Holly. Vertical Envelopment. 2004.

The Impact Of Global Media On Identity

The Impact Of Global Media On Identity Nowadays, major changes are taking place in the information and communications media as a result of new technological forms being delivered to us. Morley and Robins (1995) seem implicitly take this view when they write about our senses of space and place [] are being significantly reconfigured (Morley and Robins, 1995: 1). They are exemplifying the new communications geography constituted by global networks and information flow which result in proliferated crisis of the national sphere. The changes described are effects of an ongoing process called globalization which we are all aware of as nowadays it is one of the main buzzwords. Moreover awareness extends to the fact that we are living in times of growing cultural globalism where global media has a significant impact on our lives. Therefore the aim of this paper is to discuss the relationship between global media and its impact on national identity and culture. For some, through Western domination there is a homogenization and sameness forming across the world. Global culture is being shaped by international entertainment conglomerates and for that reason becomes standardized. A discussion in the first part of the paper as a result will be formed around this topic. In contrast, the second part of the analysis will focus on the works of other writers who believe that we are living in the age of hybridised cultures, which borrow elements from each other but irremediably remain distinct. For the purposes of this paper we must establish what is meant by terms identity and culture. Identity will refer to portrayal ones hold for them and with which they identify, while culture should refer to a variety of practices which generate meanings (Barker, 1999: 9). Creation of the Global Media The time after the 1980s led to major changes in terms of new communication technologies, digitalization of information and increase in deregulations and privatization in different sectors, including media. Privatization mostly affected United States what brought a direct impact upon the degree of exclusivity of the markets, allowing other players to improve their own standards and overall stamp economically (Morley Robins, 1995). The free market allowed other organizations to gain more dominance in the global arena. All of the changes resulted in other countries privatizing their telecoms (Thussu, 2006). The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) conducted a push toward creation of protected markets of World Trade Organization (WTO) which is holding up the structure of the free flow of information. WTO also led the way for penetration of Western markets to Asia and Latin America (Thussu, 2006). The crucial benefit of this was that key players were not more able to wholly dominate the markets to a significant degree as was the case prior to such legal regimes. The progress in technology and telecommunications made possible the transfer of extremely large data to any part of the world within seconds what unquestionably had a huge impact on economy and trade. Additionally, the growth of digitalization and new technologies like computers, mobiles or satellites allowed fast and cheap communication around the world. It had an impact on growing international businesses which could be now operate by electronic marketplace (Herman McChesney, 1997). Privatization and ongoing competition in satellites caused the domination of few nations within the market. USA and Britain being main controllers even of Intelsat which is an intergovernmental association providing international broadcast system created in order to run a global satellite system offering satellite capacity on a non discriminatory basis (Morley Robins, 1995). Once again, this proved that the countries with advanced technology have the ability to set and implement the policy agenda. As the global carriers enlarged in number, the United States run operators had to privatize their own satellite systems in order to make the market for satellite services more commercial. These changes made the Transnational Companies (TNC) the highest beneficiaries what resulted in drastic changes in the shape of the new world economy. As expected the biggest world media conglomerates started planning on how to get the highest profit which as a consequence, inspired debate about the deterioration of media plurality and democracy (Thussu, 2006). As a result of these changes a global media sector was formed which made individuals all over the world aware and able to gain knowledge about other countries. Media became a key and for many the only one medium to discover the world. Global Media and Homogenization of Culture The discourse of cultural homogenization presents globalization as synchronization to the demands of a standardized consumer culture, making everywhere seem more or less the same (Tomlinson, 1999: 6). This view sees the impact of global media in the cultural sphere in a very pessimistic manner. Frequently, many believe it to be a powerful tool with an aim to destroy cultural identities (Tomilson, 2003). The kernel of truth stems from the era before global media when there was a strong in form local connection between geographical place and cultural experience which were defining cultural identity. That was a time where individuals identity was just something which they simply had as an existential possession or heritage. Globalization therefore has swept like a flood tide through the worlds diverse cultures, destroying stable localities, displacing peoples [] homogenization of cultural experience (Tomilson, 2003: 269). This anecdote indicates therefore that globalization is some form of destruction for cultural identity and a threat to particular forms of national identity. Homogenization of cultures therefore in a stronger manner means, the appearance of one single culture embracing all people and replacing the variety of other cultural systems that have been present. In a broad sense, this pessimistic idea of the creation of one global culture is called cultural imperialism (Tomlinson, 1999). This theory also was one of the earliest based on cultural globalization which discussed the flow of American values, for example, consumer goods and lifestyles all around the world. Cultural imperialism hence focuses on American domination over Europe of the West over the rest for creation of global culture. There are two visions created out of this view about the global culture. The first is the focus around the Westernization of the world. And the second will be idea of global culture being dominated by capitalism (Tomlinson, 1999). Both of those will be now discussed. Westernization is seen as a drive toward standardization of lifestyle around the world. It is a global spread of a social and cultural totality (Tomlinson, 1999: 90). Europe produced a single world market integrating even the most savage communities into the one machine (Latouche, 1996: 19). One-way cultural currents flood from the countries of the Centre over the entire planet (Latouche, 1996: 20). From the ways how people dress and what they eat to the music that they listened to, culture flows from centers of creation into the Third World through the mass media (newspapers, radio television, films, books, video). All of it is produced and spread worldwide by monopolized, powerful transnational media groups as a result of changes in global media (previously discussed) after 1980s. This flood of cultural products therefore only indicates desires and needs of it recipients. Latouche is calling this process a propaganda as it strangles all cultural activity among the passive recipient s of this messages who read it as the way how they are supposed to live (Latouche, 1996: 21). For Latouche Westernization is thus anti-cultural and driven by desire to create a world of uniform culture. To succeed in their goal the destruction of all other ways of life (that is non-western) is necessary. However, there is a paradox situation in here. West by trying so hard to homogenize the world shall result in loss of its own socio-cultural advantage. Those who believe cultures to be directed towards the process of homogenization also consider it to follow capitalism and therefore the global economy which it defines. These views led phrases like McDonaldization, Coca-colonization or Disneyzation to be born. In particular mentioned concepts refer to the worldwide homogenization of societies throughout the impact of multinational corporations, where all of them are originally exported from America (Pieterse, 2004). In this matter, globalization is connected with market economy, where particular brand images are standardized and distributed all around the world. Many aspects of what one may describe as cultural, from food to global currency can be considered. These are the perfect examples of global capitalist monoculture and cultural synchronization. McDonald has come to occupy a central position in American not only in the business industry, but also in popular culture. It is one of the most powerful and influential developments in our society as it succeeded worldwide. The reason of its high achievements is connected with the fact that it offers consumers, workers, and managers efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control which is necessary in the business industry. As such a powerful institution, it has an impact on a wide range of undertakings and of course the way of life of many individuals in and around the world and its impact is still accelerating. Another irrational effect of McDonaldization is increased homogenization (Ritzer, 2000: 135) as any McDonald restaurant you go to, no matter where it is around the world you know what to expect. You know what kind of products will be offered to you and you can be certain that they will be prepared for you in the same way everywhere (Ritzer, 2000). On the other hand, there are many nations which invaded the McDonalds business model to develop indigenous versions. Therefore by some it is seen more as a global localization or hybridisation rather than homogenization. This will be discussed in the latter part of this paper. Globalization as hybridisation and deterritorialization Prior to understanding the concept of hybridisation it is wise to make clear that it does not refer to total deprivation of own national identity. Contrarily it emulates a potential of benefiting from other cultures and incorporating new knowledge with the old one side by side. We cannot discuss the aspect of hybridisation without analysing the deterritorialization of cultural heritage. By deterritorialization is meant not only the travel and transformation of culture but also everbroadening horizon of mundane experience (Tomilson, 1999, cited in Xue, 2008: 113). Therefore, this flow of deterritorialized cultures allows transforming other cultures more accurately producing new ones by hybridity (Xue, 2008). The deterritorializing character of the globalization process is its property of diminishing the significance of socialgeographical location to the mundane flow of cultural experience (Tomlinson, 2003: 273). What has to be understood from these definitions is that there was a transformation made in our usual model of cultural existence which now brings globalized influences into our locally situated in our countries lifeworld. For example, many different satellite channels broadcasts different genres which are likely to influence general perception of in dividuals taste. Fashion TV for instance demonstrates the mainstream transfer of whats hot, and whats not, signaling fashion trends from major fashion runway shows across the world and therefore influencing individuals style (Tomlinson, 2003). Pieterse (2004) sees hybridisation as the solvent between the polar perspectives (Pieterse, 2004: 57) as this concept gains the meaning from relationship between homogenization and polarization. Within society there is a group of people called cosmopolitans, who are open-minded to embrace some changes, are able to settle in other cultures or are willing to completely loose their personal identity (homogenization). On the other hand, there are fundamentalists who believe that the world should stay with traditions and cultures remaining unchanged. These beliefs can be called polarization. As a result people who believe in hybridization neither deny changes completely, nor absorb fully in new cultures they were introduced to. They essentially form a stance on the mid-point (Pieterse, 2004). Hybridisation brings transformations to cultures. It is the cut n mix of cultural forms in the process of globalization. It refers to the growth of culture which it occurs when a cultural product incorporates and combines different cultural practices (Pieterse, 2004). There is a lot of evidence strengthening the thesis which now will be analysed. As mentioned earlier, McDonalds, in terms of homogenisation of society, can also act as a good example of hybridization. Fusion cuisine means the creation of indigenous versions on terms of the choice of foods in order to adapt to local conditions. In Norway there is a sandwich called McLaks with grilled salmon, while in Japan you may order chicken Tatsuta with fried chicken, cabbage spiced with soy sauce and ginger. Italy provides pasta with their burgers, while in Germany you may order a beer with your meal (Ritzer, 2000). All of these are unique cultural adaptations which hence acknowledge that foods choices must be tailored to meet a variety of needs expected in specific cultures around the world. By the same token restaurants also adapt the way it operates to local social environment. As stands, in Hong Kong food chains are tailored around the need for teenagers to hang and socialize. Conversely in Taiwan it is a rare public space not dominated by men as it did not develop from traditional Chinese cultural structures where men have more rights than women (Ritzer, 2000). This blending of local features into global products has been called glocalisation as the global and local is reinforcing (Lull, 2000: 252). Another conglomerate which is dominating in the world is Viacom, the owners of MTV. The channel distributes in over 82 countries and actively promotes: think globally, act locally. In the different countries it is broadcasted, tailored versions of the channel are offered to meet the tastes of customers. For instance, through the aspect of localization MTV Asia came to existence as a result of joint venture between Rupert Murdochs Star television and Viacom in 1992. The language used by network is Hinglish which is a hybrid language of Hindu and English (Herman McChesney, 1997). Globalization as a process of hybridization gives rise to a global mlange (Pieterse, 1993: 1) where the cultures are mixing and borrowing some elements from each other. Conclusion For the past 20 years we were facing dramatic changes in our world being result of globalisation processes. Improvements in technology and telecommunications made free flow of information possible. The world market became dominated by USA and some of the Western countries. Privatization had an impact on more competition and the formation of strong TNCs. Western countries became powerful through investments in infrastructures. Developments in communication services paved the way for global media therefore open the door of the world for many people what resulted in either hybridization or homogenization of national identities and cultures. Some may see it as negative changes, others will disagree. There are also those who as Tomlinson believe that globalization produces a globalized culture rather than a global culture (Xue, 2008). However no matter what point of view one will chose there is no doubt that global media are affecting many nations and their identities and cultures. Words: 2,510

Symbols and Characters of Bread Givers. Essay -- Essays Papers

Symbols and Characters of "Bread Givers". One of the significant features of Jewish history throughout many centuries was migration. From the ancient pre-Roman times to medieval Spain to the present days the Jews were expelled from the countries they populated, were forced out by political, cultural and religious persecution, and sometimes were motivated to leave simply to escape economic hardship and to find better life for themselves and for their children. One of the interesting pages of Jewish history was a massive migration from Eastern Europe to America in the period between 1870 an 1920. In that period more than two million Jews left their homes in Russia, Poland, Galicia, and Romania and came to the New World. The heaviest volume of that wave of Jewish emigration came between 1904 and 1908, when more than 650 thousand Jewish emigrants came to the US. The Eastern European Jews fled from pogroms, religious persecution and economic hardship. We can learn about those times from history text books, but a better way to understand the feelings and thoughts of the struggling emigrants is to learn a story from an insider, who herself lived there and experienced first hand all the challenges and hardships of the emigrants' life. Anzia Yezierska's novel "Bread Givers" is a story that lets the reader to learn about the life of Jewish Emigrants in the early Twentieth Century on Manhattan's lower East Side through the eyes of a poor young Jewish woman who came from Poland and struggled to break out from poverty, from tyrant old traditions of her father, and to find happiness, security, love and understanding in the new country. The book is rich with symbolism. Different characters and situations in the novel symbolize different parts of the emigrants' community and challenges that they faced. The characters range from the father, the symbol of the Old World, to the mother who symbolizes struggles and hopelessness of the women of the Old World, to the sisters and their men, who together represent the choices and opportunities that opened before the young generation of the Jewish emigrants in the New World. The father of the storyteller, Sarah Smolinsky, is an orthodox rabbi, Mosheh Smolinsky, with rigid old-fashioned conceptions, who cannot or simply does not make an effort to realize himself in America and spends his days poisoning lives of his ... ...e them. And they, with all their education, are under my feet, just because I got the money." Through the lives of different characters the author tells about struggles and sacrifices that any emigrants have to face when they come to a new country and try to get on their feet. The first generation usually gains the least, because older people already have deeply rooted cultural traditions and language barrier that do not let them to assimilate and to feel fully at home in the new place. Just like Sarah's parents in "Bread Givers" the majority of first generation older emigrants that I know feel somewhat alienated and disadvantaged in America. Many of them were naà ¯ve and thought that America was a Golden Amadina where "money grows on the trees". Many were intelligent enough to realize that they were going to a tough land of opportunities where they would have to fight and struggle for a spot under the sun. But those who were realistic came here anyway, because they hoped for a better future for their children who could fully benefit from new opportunities, ethnic equa lity, and democracy that the New World had to offer. Bibliography: "Bread Givers" by Anzia Yezierska

Comparing Steppenwolf and the Teenaged Girl Essays -- Comparison Compa

Parallels Between Steppenwolf and the Teenaged Girl  Ã‚   To be a teenaged girl means many things in this modern society. There are numerous expectations set for the average sixteen year old female: she must be pretty, popular, thin, preferably intelligent, but not too intelligent, and she must subjugate her will to the group. This world has a tendency to shun females who are too independent, who seek too much power, and who attempt to break from the stereotypical female mold. I have personally experienced this spurning, especially from my peers. There exists a dichotomy somewhere in my own soul, a rift between that which I am expected to be and who I really am. Harry Haller, in Hermann Hesse's novel Steppenwolf, experienced a similar predicament. He was torn between the life of a socially acceptable, "decent" man, and the primal, lupine nature of the Steppenwolf. I find myself caught between wanting to be a socially acceptable, "popular" girl, and being the independent, intellectual, and strong person that I actually am. There are a number of parallels between Haller and I, each further proving that the dichotomy of the Steppenwolf and the division within myself, the teenaged girl, are of the same essence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Often in my life I have felt trapped by the boundaries and expectations that those around me have set for how I ought to behave, think, and feel. Here in suburban America, these boundaries are often set by peers and family, as well as by the media and celebrity figures. The expectations that they have set often dictate ideas that, deep down, I greatly disagree with. One of the most prominent of the ideas is that my worth is reflected in my outward physical appearance. In this world which has declared war on th... ...conditioned self and the true self. She both wishes to be accepted and to be set free from the group's expectations. She wants the perfect body and face and yet realizes the lack of importance therein. Harry Haller, in the end, could not completely understand the game of life, but understood that the willingness to play and the eagerness to sort through the inner self are what really matter. I have realized that, in the end, I must learn the same lesson. The road ahead will not be easy, just as Harry's journey was long and arduous. Fear and fleeing are no longer options, though. It is an archetypal, inherent knowledge within each human being that self-knowledge is key to a true existence, and both the Steppenwolf and the teenaged girl realize the importance of this expedition. Works Cited: Hesse, Hermann. Steppenwolf. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1990.

Forces in a Rolling Boat :: Physics Boating

Every boat has a degree of roll from which she can no longer recover. Two forces are locked in combat for a ship about to capsize: the downward push of gravity and the upward lift of buoyancy. Gravity is combined with the weight of the vessel and everything in board-crew, cargo, fishing gear- seeking the center of the earth. Buoyancy is the force of all the enclosed air in the hull trying to rise above water level. On a evenly balanced and stable ship, these two forces are equal and cancel out each other, but all of this changes when a boat gets shoved over her side. Instead of being equal, the two forces are offset. The center of gravity stays the same but the center of buoyancy migrates to the submerged side, where more air has been forced below the waterline. With gravity pushing down to the center and buoyancy pushing up from the submerged side, the ship pivots on its center and returns to an even keel. The more the ship heels, the farther apart the two forces act and the more leverage the center of buoyancy has. To simplify, the lateral distance between the two forces is called the righting arm and the torque generate is called the righting momentum. Boats want a big righting momentum so they will right from extreme angles of keel. The righting momentum has three main implications. First of all, the wider the ship the more stable she is. The next thing is how tall the ship is. The taller the ship, the more likely she is to capsize. Finally, there come the point of no return, were the boat can no longer right itself. To most it seems like this would happen when the boat’s deck has reached a 90 degree angle to the water, but in truth, trouble comes to the boat a lot sooner.

Hamlet by William Shakespeare †Ophelia Character Analysis Essay

Even as a minor character in the play Hamlet, the character Ophelia plays a vital part in the development of both the plot and thematic ideas. However, Ophelia is an extremely complicated character as she can be read in many different ways. This in effect causes the readers or audience to be more insightful and gain a greater understanding of the plot and thematic ideas in the play such as â€Å"Love and Loyalty,† and â€Å"Madness.† When exploring the character of Ophelia we must take into consideration personal beliefs, knowledge and outside criticisms which may affect our reading of the character. For example, if the reader analyses Ophelia’s character from the perspective of feminism, concerned with the equal rights and fair treatment of women, or historical context, an understanding of what it was like in the period of time the play was both written and set; their views of the character will differ, which then causes the reader to have a more in depth unders tanding of the plot and themes. Ophelia is present in only a few scenes of the play. This is due to the fact that when the play was written in the Elizabethan period females were considered to be very â€Å"private† sort of people. There job was to stay home, look after the family and complete the housework. They were not allowed to perform and therefore there are very few female characters in Shakespeare’s plays. If a play did consist of female characters they were generally played by young boys, which effectively caused restrictions and limitations amongst characterisation. Using feminism makes it possible to believe that Ophelia is not to pose as a main character of the play, but to act as a â€Å"foil,† to help the audience understand the more important characters in the play. Hamlet’s madness and Ophelia’s feelings of love for both Hamlet and her father are prime examples of the use of Ophelia as a foil. In both instances she is being used to help the audience identify the emotions and discrepancies of Hamlet and her father. Unfortunately, as Ophelia’s presence is limited it is believed that her character, although important, is poorly developed and therefore provides readers with the opportunity to make up their own judgement. Ophelia can be argued as a character that despite her beauty is weak, frail and easily controlled. Her lack of self confidence makes her an easy target for Hamlet’s abuse. Ophelia has a very connected relationship with her brother, Laertes, and father, Polonius, but unfortunately she allows them to tell her how to live her life. An example of this is where Laertes warns Ophelia against having a relationship with Hamlet: _For Hamlet, and the trifling of his favour,_ _Hold it a fashion and a toy in blood,_ _A violet in the youth of primy nature,_ _Forward, not permanent, sweet, not lasting,_ _The perfume and suppliance of a minute,_ _No more._ (Act 1: Scene 3 lines 5-10) He suggests to Ophelia that Hamlet may not actually love her, he just wants a girlfriend because that is the â€Å"fashionable† thing to do. That is what everyone else his age is doing and therefore it is not true everlasting love. Furthermore, Polonius uses his â€Å"parental power† to convince Ophelia that she is too young and doesn’t understand that her decision to go with Hamlet would be a bad option. He also explains to Ophelia that as they are noble, continuing her relationship with hamlet will affect not only her life but also the lives of her family members: _Marry, well bethought._ _’Tis told me he hath very oft of late_ _Given private time to you, and you yourself_ _Have of your audience been most free and bounteous._ _If it be so – as so ’tis put on me,_ _And that in way of caution – I must tell you_ _You do not understand yourself so clearly_ _As it behoves my daughter and your honour._ _What is between you? Give me up the truth._ (Act 1: Scene 3 lines 90-98) These two situations both demonstrate the theme of â€Å"Love and Loyalty.† In both instances Ophelia is being warned against her love for Hamlet. She is put in the situation of having to choose between her love for Hamlet or her loyalty to her family. However, as the play continues so does the situation between â€Å"Love and Loyalty,† and we begin to notice that Ophelia lacks an identity of her own. She is dependant on the men in her life as is evident in Act 3: Scene 2 (line 126), where she states â€Å"I think nothing, my Lord.† At this point she has been hurt so badly and is so confused that she doesn’t consider her thoughts to be important. Unfortunately, as time goes on the conflicts continue and Ophelia is forced to choose loyalty over love causing her to go into a state of madness. Madness is a theme evident throughout the entire text. It is evident in Hamlet, Ophelia, Polonius and Laertes. When discussing Ophelia’s character, her madness is almost always at the centre of controversy. Some people believe that Ophelia’s madness was caused by â€Å"erotomania,† which the Elizabethans referred to as â€Å"female love-melancholy.† Ophelia has also been interpreted as a young girl who â€Å"felt† too much and somehow allowed theses feelings to overcome her. It would be quite simple for such an action to drive a person to madness, just as Ophelia was driven mad. If this was the  cause of her madness it suggests that it stemmed from some sort of frustrated erotic passion between herself and Hamlet. However, a more interesting suggestion is that Ophelia’s madness was caused by the death of her father or more importantly, the removal from all the male connections of the hierarchy. Ophelia was living in a patriarchal world where women were extremely dependant on men. Once all the men in Ophelia’s life were gone she could not cope as she relied on them for advice and direction. If this is the case Ophelia then becomes the victim. This type of madness no doubt causes a different reaction by the audience toward the character. Instead of being just some lovesick girl who drove herself insane, Ophelia becomes the â€Å"innocent† woman who loved her father so dearly that someone else has caused her grief and driven her mad. However, when taking the perspective of a feminist we begin to see the â€Å"madwoman† as a heroine, a powerful figure that rebels against both the family and social order. At first glance Ophelia seems like a simple character. However, an in depth reading of her character proves otherwise. Although Ophelia can be argued as a woman who is weak, frail and ultimately driven to madness by the death of her father and her love for Hamlet, an understanding of feminism and historical context helps the audience to better understand Ophelia’s complicated character which can have multiple readings. However, as a poorly developed character we are able to make our own judgement and hypothesise the plot and thematic ideas. In essence, Ophelia’s character is just like a book in which you â€Å"choose your own ending.† Her character is both limited and incomplete. Therefore, in order to gain an understanding of the plot and the thematic ideas of, â€Å"Love and Loyalty,† and â€Å"Madness,† we must create a complete perception of Ophelia. However, no matter what interpretation you choose, you will still come out in the end with a wom an represented poorly.